K., et al. shows that microglia are highly reactive in pre-symptomatic stages while they lose their ability to monitor the environment as the disease progresses (Dibaj et al., 2011). Indeed, microglia isolated from either neonatal or early onset mice display an activated M2 phenotype and enhance motoneuron survival while microglia isolated from either adult or end stage mice have a classically activated M1 phenotype and induce motoneuron death (Weydt et al., 2004; Liao et al., 2012). In the pre-symptomatic and symptomatic rat model, microglia aggregates are detected in both the spinal cord and brainstem and display a degenerative and apoptotic phenotype at end stage (Fendrick et al., 2007; Graber et al., 2010). Moreover, microglia of pre-symptomatic rats express the proliferating marker Ki67 and the phagocytic markers ED1 and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II (Sanagi et al., 2010; Bataveljic et al., 2011). These data suggest that microgliosis not only typifies ALS but that microglia function changes during disease progression, thus exerting differential effects on motoneurons. A ROLE FOR MICROGLIA IN ALS PATHOGENESIS A key finding supporting the contribution of microglia in ALS pathogenesis is the significant extension in lifespan and delay in disease progression when the mutant protein is specifically deleted from macrophages and microglial lineages in both and mice (Boillee et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2009). Similarly, bone marrow transplantation (resulting in donor-derived microglia) of Cyanidin chloride microglia into spinal cord suggests that both neuroprotective and neurotoxic population of microglial cells may co-exist during the disease and that depletion of proliferative microglia does not Cyanidin chloride prevent motoneuron degeneration (Gowing et al., 2008; Beers et al., 2011b). Together, these studies thus suggest that microglia participates, through a complex balance between neuroprotective and neurotoxic signals, to ALS disease progression. PROPOSED MECHANISMS OF MICROGLIAL-DERIVED NEUROTOXICITY Various misregulated pathways within ALS microglia have been identified that may influence motoneuron survival. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a characteristic of ALS pathogenesis (reviewed in Lautenschlaeger et al., 2012). In microglia of both sporadic ALS patients and symptomatic mice, there is an increased expression of C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP; Ito et Cyanidin chloride al., 2009), a member of the apoptotic ER stress pathway (reviewed in Oyadomari and Mori, 2004). It remains unclear if it directly participates in microglial neurotoxicity but exposure of microglia to interferon gamma (IFN), which levels are increased in the spinal cord of ALS mice and patients (Aebischer et al., 2011; Aebischer et al., 2012), elicits inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) expression. The subsequent production of NO can cause an ER stress response that involves CHOP (Kawahara et al., 2001). Interestingly, several SOD1 mouse models show initiation of a specific ER stress response accompanied by microglial activation (Saxena et al., 2009). Activation of the ligand-dependent CD14 lipopolysaccharide (LPS) receptor located at the microglial surface (Lacroix et al., 1998) initiates a pro-inflammatory Toll-like receptors (TLRs) dependent cascade (Laflamme and Rivest, 2001; Laflamme et al., 2001). Importantly, neurotoxic microglia activation by extracellular SOD1is mediated by the CD14-TLR2 pathway and induces a subsequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-1 (Liu et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2010). Moreover, microglia from sporadic ALS patients show an enhanced TLR2 immunoreactivity (Casula et al., 2011). Microglia may thus participate in motoneuron loss following the specific activation of the CD14-TLR pathway by secreted SOD1 mutant, therefore propagating pro-inflammatory stimuli. The release of extracellular nucleoside di- and tri-phosphates, in particular ATP, by degenerating neurons can elicit microglia activation through the ionotropic P2X and metabotropic P2Y purinergic receptors which can subsequently elicit a pro-inflammatory response, chemotaxis, and phagocytosis (reviewed in Inoue, 2006; Bours et al., 2011). Notably, P2X is increased within spinal cord microglia of ALS patients (Yiangou et al., 2006). Embryonic microglia and neonatal primary microglial cultures from mutant SOD1 mice display an upregulation of P2X4, P2X7, and P2Y6 receptors (DAmbrosi et al., 2009). Further, activation of P2X7 in Tgfbr2 microglia leads to the production of significantly higher levels of TNF, which has a neurotoxic effect on motoneuron cultures (Ugolini et al., 2003), and of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), which produces the potent inflammatory mediators prostaglandins (DAmbrosi et al., 2009). Moreover, a reduced ATP hydrolysis activity in mutant SOD1 microglia, suggests a potentiation of.
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